Physics and Society
Demographic Dependence of Vaccine Adoption under Opinion Persuasion
Alessandro Casu, Camilla Quaresmini, Robin Delabays et al. (+2 more)
Inspired by contagion models of social belief formation, we develop an epistemically-informed modeling framework, SIS-Vo, in which vaccine-related information propagates on a signed opinion network. Our model allows for heterogeneous treatment effects of policy messages across subpopulations through demographic-specific responses. We derive fixed-point characterizations of the healthy (disease-free) and endemic
equilibria of this model, and obtain conditions for local stability of the healthy state in terms of the contact network and opinion-dependent vaccination capacities. Using numerical simulations, we illustrate how suitably targeted policy interventions, acting through opinion dynamics, can stabilize the epidemic process by moving the system towards the healthy regime. The SIS-Vo framework thus provides a natural basis for control-theoretic analysis of vaccination policies that remain robust even when misinformation targets specific subgroups.
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All authors Alessandro Casu, Camilla Quaresmini, Robin Delabays, Lewis Mitchell, Philip E. Paré
Fluid Dynamics
Reynolds effects on transition to turbulence for hypersonic expansion and compression corner flows
Clément Caillaud, Mathieu Lugrin, Nicolas Severac et al. (+1 more)
This experimental and numerical study examines transition to
turbulence for a Cone-Cylinder-
Flare geometry at Mach 7 and across a broad Reynolds number range. The focus is set on both attached boundary layers and separated shock-boundary layer interactions. The campaign is conducted in the R2Ch facility. Unsteady wall pressure fluctuations and high-speed schlieren images are analysed using data-driven techniques and compared with base flow computations and global linear stability analysis. The results distinguish two transition regimes. At high Reynolds numbers, transition is dominated by the second Mack mode and its non-linear interactions on the cone. High-frequency wall pressure measurements and schlieren imaging permit the capture of both fundamental waves and their non-linear harmonics. Non-linear interaction regions are resolved with unprecedented detail, clarifying the boundary-layer state before rapid breakdown at reattachment. At lower Reynolds numbers, the transition scenario is more intricate, marked by the coexistence of low- and high-frequency modes. A complex coupling between separated flow and convective instabilities is revealed, with trapped acoustic waves inside the recirculation region measured experimentally for the first time. Their linear origin is demonstrated through global stability analysis, and a simple acoustic duct model is provided to predict their frequencies. These waves offer a new interpretation of low-frequency pressure signatures and suggest a mechanism for energy transfer from high to low frequencies, ultimately driving transition on the
flare. The findings advance understanding of hypersonic boundary-layer transition and its dependence on Reynolds number and flow separation.
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All authors Clément Caillaud, Mathieu Lugrin, Nicolas Severac, Sébastien Esquieu
Classical Physics · Cross-listed from gr-qc
On Spavieri's conundrum or the shadow of the twin paradox – A submission to the One-Way Linear Effect (OWLE) Award
Marco Mamone-Capria
We deal with a problem concerning a supposed inconsistency in the special relativistic treatment of the so-called linear Sagnac effect. It is shown that, under modern clothes, the root of the difficulty perceived by some authors lies in their uneasiness with the standard solution of the twin paradox. In particular, since the linear Sagnac effect is an absolute effect, no tinkering with conventionality of simultaneity, so far as it preserves the physical content of special relativity, would get us out of the supposed trouble.
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Applied Physics
High-Efficiency Isolator-Free Magnetron Power Combining Method Based on H-Plane Tee Coupling and Peer-to-Peer Locking
Shaoyue Wang, Xu Zhu, Xiaojie Chen et al. (+4 more)
Magnetrons are widely used as high-performance microwave sources in microwave heating, microwave chemistry, and microwave power transmission due to their high efficiency, low cost, and compact size advantages. However, the output power of a single magnetron is limited by its resonant cavities, posing a physical constraint. High-efficiency coherent power combining based on the injection-locking technique effectively overcomes this limitation and meets the demand for higher output power. Nevertheless, using isolators, such as circulators, introduces significant insertion loss, and the injection signal sources and phase shifters increase the system size, cost, and complexity in a conventional magnetron power combining (MPC) system. A novel method is proposed to utilize the coupling between two ports of an H-plane tee to achieve peer-to-peer injection locking magnetrons. Meanwhile, an asymmetric phase compensation is realized using a section of waveguide to adjust the magnetron output characteristics. Theoretical and numerical analyses provided qualitative insight into the system output behavior. Subsequently, an experimental system was developed for verification. In the experiments, the system achieved maximum microwave power combining efficiencies 90.2%, 93.6%, and 93.6% at electrical waveguide lengths corresponding to 90, 135, and 225, with output powers of 1650, 1260, and 1610 W, respectively, without the use of any isolators or external injection sources. The experimental results show good agreement with numerical calculations. This method offers the advantages of low cost, compact size, and low loss, providing a new approach for developing high-performance MPC systems in the future.
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All authors Shaoyue Wang, Xu Zhu, Xiaojie Chen, Da He, Zhongqi He, Liping Yan, Changjun Liu
Medical Physics
Alterations of brain tissue structural complexity and disorder in Parkinson disease (PD): Fractal, multifractal, fractal transformation, and disorder strength analyses
Santanu Maity, Mousa Alrubayan, Mohammad Moshahid Khan et al. (+1 more)
Parkinson disease (PD) is marked by progressive neurodegeneration, yet early and subtle structural alterations in
brain tissue remain difficult to detect with conventional imaging and analytical methods. Fractal and multifractal frameworks offer a principled way to quantify complex biological architecture, but their diagnostic utility in PD has been largely unexplored. In this study, we investigated the fractal and multifractal characteristics of human
brain tissues to identify structural alterations associated with PD. Alongside conventional fractal and multifractal analysis, we employed a recently developed fractal functional distribution method that transforms distributions into a Gaussian form, thereby enhancing quantification. Using this combined approach, we found notable deviations across multiple distribution metrics in PD samples, offering potential for quantitative staging and diagnostic applications. The multifractal analysis revealed threshold-dependent variations in intensity-based measures, which are linked to the sparsity and heterogeneity of neural tissue and suggestive of potential biomarker value. Additionally, we applied inverse participation ratio (IPR) analysis to assess structural disorder, demonstrating that larger IPR pixel sizes correlate with increased structural complexity during disease progression. These complementary analyses outline a multi-layered quantitative profile of PD-related tissue disruption, offering a foundation for earlier, objective assessment of disease-associated microstructural change.
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All authors Santanu Maity, Mousa Alrubayan, Mohammad Moshahid Khan, Prabhakar Pradhan
Optics
Dual-comb correlation spectroscopy reveals laser dynamics
Xiuxiu Zhang, Zhuoren Wan, Yuling Sheng et al. (+6 more)
Laser dynamics underpin a broad range of modern photonic technologies and continue to reveal rich nonlinear behaviors. However, existing spectroscopic tools, most notably time-stretched dispersive
Fourier transform spectroscopy (TS-DFT), remain limited in spectral resolution, accuracy, and their ability to capture continuous waveforms and complex field dynamics. Here, we introduce dual-comb correlation spectroscopy (DCCS) as a powerful approach for resolving fast and intricate
laser behaviors that are inaccessible to TS-DFT and conventional spectrometers. By correlating two sequences of heterodyne spectra produced by mixing a test
laser with a pair of optical combs, DCCS enables rapid (e.g., 1 us) and high-resolution (0.08 pm) spectral
retrieval over broad optical bandwidths. Leveraging these capabilities, we reveal mode-hopping and mode-competition dynamics in continuous-wave
lasers, as well as the buildup process of a mode-locked
laser. These results establish DCCS as a versatile and complementary tool to TS-DFT for exploring transient, broadband, and previously unresolvable behaviors in
lasers and other time-evolving optical systems.
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All authors Xiuxiu Zhang, Zhuoren Wan, Yuling Sheng, Ming Yan, Yuan Chen, Zijian Wang, Zhaoyang Wen, Min Li, Heping Zeng
Optics
In-series Multimode Interference Sensors and Fabry-Perot Interferometers for Enhanced Wavelength Shift Resolving Capabilities
João G. M. de Carvalho, Luiz D. C. Silva, Flavio A. M. Marques et al. (+10 more)
We report on the development of a refractive index sensor obtained by using a singlemode-multimode-singlemode (SMS) structure and a Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI) set into an in-series configuration. Due to the self-imaging phenomenon, the SMS structure - formed by splicing a no-core fiber between two singlemode fibers -, provides a broad spectral peak whose central wavelength position is sensitive to variations in the refractive index of the medium surrounding the fiber. In turn, thanks to the in-series SMS-FPI configuration, the sensor's reflection spectrum exhibits the SMS spectral signature modulated by FPI fringes. This readily allows for reducing the width of the spectral features monitored during the sensing measurements, thus enhancing the capabilities of adequately resolving the corresponding spectral shifts. The FPIs reported in this investigation have been fabricated by using two different methods, namely by forming an air-gap FPI between the cleaved ends of two singlemode optical fibers, and by casting a polymeric film onto a connectorized fiber end tip. In the first configuration, the distance between the two cleaved fiber ends could be varied to tune the FPI's free spectral range, hence allowing for tailoring the widths of the spectral oscillations to be monitored during the sensing measurements. Alternatively, the second configuration, while avoiding the use of motorized translation stages, provides a more versatile option for applications. Thus, we understand that our work expands the application of multimode interference and FPIs in sensing scenarios, providing new opportunities for probing physical and chemical parameters by exploring their combined response.
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All authors João G. M. de Carvalho, Luiz D. C. Silva, Flavio A. M. Marques, Alexandre A. C. Cotta, Jefferson E. Tsuchida, Julio C. Ugucioni, Silésia C. da Silva, Leomar S. Marques, Diego C. Fuzatto, Alexandre Bessa dos Santos, Cristiano M. B. Cordeiro, Limin Xiao, Jonas H. Osório
Plasma Physics
Detailed study of non-equilibrium characteristics of quasi-neutral TNSA plasmas
Zhe Zhu, A. Bonasera, D. Batani et al. (+26 more)
In an experiment performed in November 2022 at the petawatt (PW)
laser facility at Vega III located in Salamanca-Spain, we have studied the successful production of several radioisotopes using
protons accelerated by the Target Normal Sheath Acceleration (TNSA) mechanism (Rodrigues et al. [1]). The experimental
proton energy distribution recorded on a shot-to-shot basis and confirmed in a follow up experiment (K. Batani et al. [2]), allowed us to derive the number of
nuclear reactions taking place in different targets on a single shot. From this analysis, using the ratio of the yields 11C/7Be, we obtained an effective "single shot" temperature of the TNSA
plasma. We used this value to evaluate the yield of alpha particles from the reaction p + 11B -> 3 alpha which may reach (1.6 +/- 0.5) x 10^9 alpha particles in 2pi. From the fluctuations of the
protons and the fusion yields, we derived a "TNSA-Equation of State" (EoS), The deviation of such "EoS" from the classical ideal gas limit is well reproduced by the
soliton solution of the Korteweg-de Vries (KdV) equation for each shot.
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All authors Zhe Zhu, A. Bonasera, D. Batani, M. R. D. Rodrigues, K. Batani, J.A. Pérez-Hernández, M. Ehret, E. Filippov, H. Larreur, D. Molloy, G. G. Rapisarda, D. Lattuada, G. L. Guardo, C. Verona, Fe. Consoli, G. Petringa, A. McNamee, M. La Cognata, S. Palmerini, R. De Angelis, G. A. P. Cirrone, V. Istokskaia, R. Lera, L. Volpe, D. Giulietti, S. Agarwal, M. Krupka, S. Singh, Jun Xu
Applied Physics
Frequency-modulated enhancement of microwave resonator sensing
Pranaya Kishore Rath, James D. Philips, Taekwan Yoon et al. (+3 more)
We use the Pound-Drever-
Hall (PDH) technique to characterize the frequency stability of a microwave-frequency surface acoustic wave (SAW) resonator-based sensor. The multi-mode acoustic resonator is integrated in a notch geometry with a transmission line, all fabricated on Y-cut lithium niobate. We measure the amplitude and phase of the resonator transfer function and the PDH signal across the resonator full spectral range. We use these measurements to emphasize the differences between the PDH measurement and a standard Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) technique. As compared to a PLL, we demonstrate that PDH is insensitive to phase error and exhibits a reduced Allan deviation of the center frequency measurement, in each case by up to an order of magnitude. The method rejects spurious effects and background frequency drift, demonstrating the enhancements possible with PDH-based measurements, which can be realized in a wide range of microwave-frequency resonator-based sensors and devices.
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All authors Pranaya Kishore Rath, James D. Philips, Taekwan Yoon, Kent R. Shirer, Arash Fereidouni, Johannes Pollanen
Optics · Cross-listed from quant-ph
Md Sakibul Islam, Kuldeep Singh, Yunhe Zhao et al. (+2 more)
Solid-state
quantum light sources offer a scalable pathway for interfacing stationary
spin qubits with flying photonic
qubits, forming the backbone of future
quantum networks. Telecom-band
spin-photonic
qubits, operating in the 1260-1675 nm wavelength range, are particularly well-suited for long-distance
quantum communication due to minimal loss in standard optical fibers. Achieving scalability, however, hinges on fulfilling several stringent criteria: coherent
spin-state control, deterministic and indistinguishable single-
photon emission, and integration with nanophotonic structures that enhance radiative properties, such as lifetime, coherence, and
photon indistinguishability. This study explores the state-of-the-art
spin-photonic
qubits across solid-state platforms, including diamond color centers, silicon carbide defect centers,
quantum dots, and two-dimensional materials. Special
attention is given to silicon-based emitters, particularly G, T, C- and Ci-centers, which promise monolithic integration with complementary metal-
oxide-
semiconductor (CMOS) technology and telecom-band operation. We classify these systems based on
spin-
photon interface availability, CMOS process compatibility, and emitter scalability. We also discuss recent advances in cavity
quantum electrodynamics (cQED), including Purcell enhancement and quality factor engineering in integrated photonic (
circuits) environments. The work highlights emerging demonstrations of
quantum networking over metropolitan scales and outlines the trajectory toward chip-scale
quantum photonic integrated
circuits (QPICs). It combines deterministic emitter creation, coherent
spin manipulation, and
quantum information processing. These developments pave the way for global
quantum networks, enabling secure communication, distributed
quantum computing, and
quantum-enhanced sensing.
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All authors Md Sakibul Islam, Kuldeep Singh, Yunhe Zhao, Nitesh Singh, Wayesh Qarony
Applied Physics · Cross-listed from cond-mat.mes-hall
Robust AC vector sensing at zero magnetic field with pentacene
Boning Li, Garrett Heller, Jungbae Yoon et al. (+6 more)
Quantum sensors based on electronic
spins have emerged as powerful probes of microwave-frequency fields. Among other solid-state platforms,
spins in molecular
crystals offer a range of advantages, from high
spin density to functionalization via chemical tunability. Here, we demonstrate microwave vector magnetometry using the photoexcited
spin triplet of deuterated pentacene molecules, operating at zero external
magnetic field and room temperature. We achieve full three-dimensional microwave field reconstruction by detecting the Rabi frequencies of anisotropic
spin-triplet transitions associated with two crystallographic orientations of pentacene in naphthalene
crystals. We further introduce a phase alternated protocol that extends the rotating-frame coherence time by an order of magnitude and enables sensitivities of $1~\mu\mathrm{T}/\sqrt{\mathrm{Hz}}$ with sub-micrometer spatial resolution. These results establish pentacene-based molecular
spins as a practical and high-performance platform for microwave
quantum sensing, and the control techniques are broadly applicable to other molecular and solid-state
spin systems.
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All authors Boning Li, Garrett Heller, Jungbae Yoon, Alexander Ungar, Hao Tang, Guoqing Wang, Patrick Hautle, Yifan Quan, Paola Cappellaro
Applied Physics
A Wideband Tri-Band Shared-Aperture Antenna Array for 5G and 6G Applications
Shang-Yi Sun, Can Ding, Hai-Han Sun et al. (+2 more)
This work presents a wideband tri-band shared-aperture
antenna array covering the 5G mid-band and 6G centimetric band. The challenge of scattering and coupling suppression is holistically addressed across the wide bands. Guided by characteristic mode analysis (CMA), a segmented spiral radiator is developed to mitigate high-frequency scattering and coupling while maintaining low-frequency radiation performance. Compared with a conventional tube radiator, the proposed spiral achieves a reduced radar cross-section (RCS) over 4.7-21.5 GHz (128.2%). With the aid of serial resonators, the segmented-spiral dipole achieves impedance matching in the low band (LB, 3.05-4.68 GHz, 42.2%), covering the 5G band (3.3-4.2 GHz), while additional suppressors further reduce cross-band coupling. The middle band (MB) and high band (HB)
antennas operate at 6.2-10.0 GHz (46.9%) and 10.0-15.6 GHz (43.8%), respectively, collectively covering the anticipated 5G-Advanced and 6G bands (6.425-15.35 GHz). Both the MB and HB
antennas employ a planar magnetoelectric (ME) dipole structure to avoid common-mode resonances within the LB and MB and to minimize cross-band scattering in the HB. The proposed array maintains undistorted radiation patterns and better than 20 dB port isolation between any two ports across all three bands.
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All authors Shang-Yi Sun, Can Ding, Hai-Han Sun, Alessio Monti, Y. Jay Guo
Physics and Society
How Withheld Punishment Sustains Anti-Democratic Behavior in an Evolutionary Game
Chad M. Topaz
Democratic backsliding is often framed as a contest between defenders and disruptors of democratic institutions. That framing can miss a third response, withholding punishment from disruptors while penalizing defenders who confront them. We model the three responses as strategies in an evolutionary game, track their shares with replicator dynamics, and assume defenders beat disruptors head-to-head but have a payoff disadvantage among non-punishers even when disruptors are absent. If the third response cannot spread among disruptors, a payoff condition draws the population toward the classical May–Leonard heteroclinic cycle, a rock–paper–scissors succession in which disruption repeatedly becomes rare, then widespread. If that response can, a threshold on its payoff advantage over disruptors determines whether all three coexist or defenders alone vanish. In finite-population simulations, sustained resurgence requires reintroducing lost strategies. Our contribution is to show how two separately documented political tendencies, if combined, can sustain disruption despite defenders' head-to-head advantage over disruptors.
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Medical Physics
Fast and Robust T1 Mapping Based on a 3D Dual-Echo UTE Sequence (PETALUTE) for SPION Biodistribution Assessment
Zhen Jiang, Stephen Sawiak, Alexandra Lipka et al. (+12 more)
Superparamagnetic iron
oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) such as ferumoxytol are promising theranostic
agents detectable with MRI. Relaxation time mapping offers reproducible, quantitative biomarkers of SPION distribution, but conventional methods suffer from susceptibility artifacts, long echo times, and extended scan durations, limiting accurate quantification. This study developed a fast, B1-corrected T1-mapping protocol using PETALUTE, a 3D dual-echo ultrashort-echo MRI sequence with a rosette k-space trajectory and variable flip-angle acquisition for quantitative ferumoxytol imaging. Agarose phantoms containing 0-5000 ppm ferumoxytol were scanned at 7T with PETALUTE and vendor-supplied RARE-VTR. PETALUTE T1 maps were derived from two flip angles (4 deg and 20 deg), and mean R1 values were correlated with ferumoxytol concentration. For in vivo feasibility, mice bearing 4T1 mammary and flank tumors were scanned 24 h post-injection (ferumoxytol: n=2, 40 mg/kg; control: n=1). Regions of interest in muscle and tumors were analyzed to compare T1 and R1 values obtained with both methods. PETALUTE produced positive contrast for all phantom concentrations except 5000 ppm, whereas RARE-VTR did not. PETALUTE demonstrated a significant linear correlation between R1 and ferumoxytol concentration (R=0.975, p<0.01), in contrast to RARE-VTR (R=0.672, p=0.144). In vivo, PETALUTE enabled high-resolution, whole-abdominal imaging in 4 min 19 s. Ferumoxytol-injected mice showed T1 shortening in flank tumors, consistent with iron uptake, and PETALUTE revealed elevated T1 value with preserved T2*-weighted signal in one mammary tumor. PETALUTE-based T1 mapping provides fast, quantitative, positive-contrast ferumoxytol imaging with greater spatial coverage and a wider usable concentration range than conventional RARE-VTR.
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All authors Zhen Jiang, Stephen Sawiak, Alexandra Lipka, Xin Shen, Uzay Emir, Ali Özen, Mark Chiew, Justin Geise, Joseph Speth, Deng-Yuan Chang, Jessica Veenstra, Mitchell Gabalski, Luis Solorio, Gregory Tamer Jr., Matthew Scarpelli
Biological Physics · Cross-listed from cond-mat.soft
Protocol to evaluate the viscoelastic response of a polymer suspension to an active agent via oscillatory shear rheometry
Kai Qi, Qingzhi Zou and Ignacio Pagonabarraga
Microorganisms inhabit viscoelastic environments, where their locomotion can deform
polymers and trigger local complex viscoelastic responses. However, a systematic approach to quantify such responses remains lacking. Here, we propose a protocol that maps the shear effect induced by an active
agent to oscillatory shear rheometry. The central idea is to establish a correspondence between the mean shear rate generated by swimming and that produced by an oscillating plate. In this mapping, the swimming velocity and active stress are translated into an effective oscillation frequency and strain amplitude. The resulting viscoelastic response can then be evaluated by standard oscillatory rheometry. The protocol is validated using
lattice Boltzmann simulations of a squirmer embedded in
polymer solutions. Our framework is generic and can be naturally extended to active microrheology, providing a pathway to quantify swimmer-induced viscoelasticity.
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Applied Physics
Physics-based Full-band GaN High-Electron-Mobility Transistor Simulation Suggests Upper Bound of LO Phonon Lifetime
Ankan Ghosh Dastider, Matt Grupen, Ashwin Tunga et al. (+1 more)
Intrinsic limits to device performance arise from fundamental material properties that define the best achievable operation, independent of engineering constraints. In GaN high-electron-mobility transistors (HEMTs), hot longitudinal optical (LO)
phonons can act as an intrinsic performance bottleneck by reducing electron saturation velocity, output current, and transconductance, which are key device metrics. While bulk GaN studies report LO
phonon lifetimes of approximately 1 ps, leading to strong nonequilibrium
phonon populations, ungated
heterostructures show much shorter lifetimes of only tens of femtoseconds. Because direct measurement inside a HEMT channel is challenging, the true impact of hot
phonons remains uncertain. Using full-band transport simulations of a fabricated GaN HEMT, we show that LO
phonon lifetimes must be less than about 40 fs to reproduce measured I-V characteristics, consistent with ultrafast decay observed in GaN
heterostructures. We further demonstrate that even these ultrafast lifetimes are not sufficient to eliminate hot
phonon effects: the residual nonequilibrium LO population continues to limit the current density at high bias. Moreover, when the LO
phonon lifetime exceeds a few tens of femtoseconds, a pronounced hot
phonon bottleneck emerges, leading to substantial current-density suppression that is inconsistent with experiment.
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All authors Ankan Ghosh Dastider, Matt Grupen, Ashwin Tunga, Shaloo Rakheja
Applied Physics
Curation and Dissemination of Complex Multi-modal Data Sets for Radiation Detection, Localization, and Tracking
Nicolas Abgrall, Mark S. Bandstra, Reynold J. Cooper et al. (+5 more)
The PANDAWN sensor network in Chicago, IL, is a state-of-the-art test-bed for networked, multi-modal sensing. It integrates AI/data science methods into its operation, from data acquisition to automated data labeling and curation workflows. The curation and dissemination of diverse multi-modal data sets will enable the development of new radiological/
nuclear (R/N) detection, localization, and tracking
algorithms, and methods relevant across the nonproliferation mission space. This paper first introduces the PANDAWN sensor network and the features that make it stand out from previous multi-modal data acquisition efforts. We then review the various data streams acquired on the PANDAWN nodes, and present the implementation of an automated data curation pipeline that includes the labeling of radiation and contextual data streams. We finally provide a short overview of different studies that leveraged the curated data sets.
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All authors Nicolas Abgrall, Mark S. Bandstra, Reynold J. Cooper, Marco Salathe, Brian J. Quiter, Rajesh Sankaran, Yongho Kim, Sean Shahkarami
Plasma Physics
3D PIC Simulations on Hall Thruster Electron Drift Instability: Influence of Magnetic Field on Electron Transport
Yinjian Zhao and Kunpeng Zhong
Three-dimensional particle-in-
cell simulations are employed to investigate electron transport characteristics in
Hall thrusters, with particular focus on how
magnetic field configuration affects the electron transport due to electron drift instabilities. Comparing analytic and realistic
magnetic field models reveals significant differences in electron transport patterns, where radial variations in field strength lead to asymmetric transport enhanced in low-field regions. The derived effective electron mobility shows agreement with direct simulation diagnoses, and the obtained two-dimensional transport profiles provide a foundation for developing more accurate reduced-dimensional models.
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